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Overview of the history of English literature until the Reformation

Historical periods of the English language

The history and development of English literature is commonly divided into four main periods:

The Anglo-Saxons

The Old English period starts with the settlement of the Anglo-Saxons – Germanic tribes, considered the ancestors of the English people – around the year 450 AD, in England. The language spoken by these tribes has had the most important role in forming the base of what would become the English language. Half of the words used in English today are of Anglo-Saxon origin, and it is in this period that we see the first forms of literature written in Old English.

The culture of the Anglo-Saxon was mainly Germanic, a culture of warriors and vikings, and was greatly influenced by their neighboring civilizations, mainly Vikings, the Danes (modern-day Denmark), and the Geats (modern-day Sweden). Anglo-Saxons culture was also partly influenced by the Celtic peoples that have lived previously on the island, preserving many of the Celtic myths that would serve as a base for literary creation in the Middle English period. And, lastly, the culture was also greatly influenced by the introduction of Christianity by the Romans, and changing moral and social values that contradicted the heroic code, a set of values and behaviors held by the Germanic people.

Most of the Anglo-Saxon literature is poetry, of which around 30,000 lines have survived, and consisted mainly of religious poetry and translations of Books from the Bible. These texts have been written and preserved in monasteries. Apart from poetry, a few epic poems have survived as well. The principal sources of texts in Old English come from the four Old English manuscripts: The Junius Manuscript, The Exeter Book, The Vercelli Book, and The Beowulf Manuscript.

Beowulf

The last manuscript contains the most important epic poem written in Old English, Beowulf, written by an anonymous poet around the 6th or 8th century. The epic poem’s narrative takes place around the 5th or century in pagan Scandinavia, and tells the story of the eponymous epic hero of the Geats, Beowulf, who comes in aid of the king of the Danes, Hrothgar, after having heard that the great mead hall, Heorot, is under attack by Grendel, a terrifying monster. Beowulf defeats Grendel with his bare hands, and is praised by the Danes, who celebrate his victory in the mead hall. However, they are attacked by Grendel’s mother, who has come to revenge the death of her son. Beowulf hunts her down and kills her with a giant’s sword that he finds in her lair. The poem’s narrative then skips to later in Beowulf’s life, now king of the Geats. His realm is terrorized by a dragon after a thief has stolen some of its treasure, and thus Beowulf decides to defeat the dragon. After a failed attempt to kill the dragon with the aid of his servants, Beowulf decides to follow it into its lair, only accompanied by his loyal sidekick, Wiglaf. Beowulf succeeds in killing the dragon, but is fatally wounded in the process. He passes his shield to Wiglaf, who then arranges Beowulf’s cremation and raises a burial mound by the sea in his honor.

From the supernatural (monsters, Beowulf’s superhuman strength), to legendary weapons and creatures (the giant’s sword, the dragon), the epic poem presents a pagan world of superstitions, fears, beliefs, myths, and magical objects. Furthermore, the poem is also characterized by the heroic code followed by the characters, from Beowulf’s bravery and discipline, to the loyalty and trust of his servants.

Structurally, the poem presents the features characteristic of all Old English poetry. Instead of rhyming verse, as is common in modern poetry, alliteration is used. Alliteration is the repetition of the first sound or set of sounds in the words of a verse. Another common element of Old Enligsh poetry was the use of the caesura (a break or pause in the middle of the line), and kennings/picture-names (such as bone-house for “body”).

Christian values

The Old English poetry reflects the changing moral values of the Anglo-Saxons after the introduction of Christianity by the Romans. The religious poetry written in Old English uses many of the themes and elements of the old pagan heroic stories, and combined them with Christian values. Many of the authors enjoyed the pagan stories, and others have written poems reflecting on the changing moral ideals of his people. Despite the dark and sorrowful themes of these poems, their message is a call to righteousness and ataraxia.

In The Seafarer, the poet asserts the vanity of earthly possessions and treasures, since it will no longer be of use in the afterlife, nor can it benefit the soul after one’s death.

Middle English

The Middle English period starts after the victory of king William the Conqueror during the Norman Conquest (1066), until around the 15th century. This period is characterized by a significant French influence on the language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons due to the implementation of Norman French as a language of court and of the elite. A great number of French words get borrowed into the language; even today, around 30% of English vocabulary is of French (or Norman) origin. It is around this period that the language evolves into a form that is more recognizable for speakers of Modern English.

Due to the introduction of new social classes, the bourgeoisie of the ruling class, and inequity between said classes, this period is one of great tensions between the people. This is further influenced by the refusal of the people to give up speaking their native language for the language of the ruling class, French. The Germanic core that still lives in Modern English is a testament to the resilience of the Anglo-Saxons.

The Dark Ages

The Dark Ages is a term originally coined by Italian scholar and poet, Francis Petrarch (1304 – 1374), which refers to the time span between the 5th and 14th centuries in Western Europe, or Europe as a whole. It is the historical period after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Despite its popularity, the term was never used during the Dark Ages per se, but started being used during the Renaissance after Francis Petrarch coined said term, comparing the cultural, economical and intellectual “decline” with the “bright” culture and works of the classical era (the civilization of the Ancient Greeks and Romans).

Common themes

Middle English literature was influenced heavily by medieval French folklore and literature and features themes common across Europe during the Medieval period, such as knighthood and chivalry, courtly love, and the development of allegorical poems and prose.

Knighthood became increasingly common in medieval literature with the popularization of the Arthurian legends. Le Morte d’Arthur (Norman French for “The Death of Arthur”) is a collection of tales rewritten in Middle English about the legendary King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, written by Sir Thomas Malory (1405 – 1471).

Chivalry was a code of conduct developed in Europe around the 11th century and followed by medieval Christian knights, in various chivalric orders (confraternities). Knights had to follow a set of values deemed adequate of a Christian warrior, and were often seen as examples of pious and honorable fighters.

Geoffrey Chaucer

Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1340 – 1400) is considered the greatest English poet of medieval times. Educated at Cambridge and Oxford, and having many connections with the royal court, beginning with his assignment as page in the household of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, third son of King Edward III, Chaucer had a vast understanding of the multifaceted way of life. He was sent on several diplomatic missions to France, Italy, Flanders.

The Canterbury Tales

The Canterbury Tales (Middle English: Tales of Caunterbury) is a poetic cycle written by Geoffrey Chaucer around the 14th century. The collection of 24 stories and over 17,000 lines tells the story of a group of pilgrims traveling from London to Canterbury in order to visit the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket1 at Canterbury Cathedral. During their travel, each of the pilgrims partakes in a story-telling contest, the winner of which is promised a free meal at the Tabard Inn on their way back.

The poetic work, largely regarded a Chaucer’s magnum opus (most important/valuable work), stands out due to its highly complex and detailed representation of the social classes during the Middle Ages. In this sense, each poem serves to show the flaws or values of the social classes from Chaucer’s time. Each of the pilgrims is characterized through the stories they tell, their behavior and gestures, the clothing they wear, and even their physical appearance. The narrator takes the role of a moral guide for the reader, and offers insight into the way that the characters think, act, and justify their actions.

Early Modern English

The development stage of Early Modern English, sometimes referred to as Shakespeare’s English or King James English2, started from the beginning of the Tudor period until around the 17th century.

The Renaissance

The Renaissance (from French «renaissance», rebirth) is a historical and cultural period that started around the 14th century in the city of Florence, Italy, gradually spreading across the European continent, and ending around the 16th century. It is a period most known for its vast expansion of culture in all branches of human creation: paintings, architecture, sculpture, literature, music, and philosophy. A living and passionate interest rose for classical antiquity, particularly ancient Greek and Roman culture.

Many works written in Early Modern English have been greatly influenced by the Renaissance, such as the theatrical works of William Shakespeare.

William Shakespeare

William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright and actor born circa the 23th of April 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer of the English language and the most important dramatist in the world. He is also sometimes referred to as the Bard of Avon, due to his influence on English culture and literature.

His works encompass a plethora of themes, ranging from historical plays, narrative legends and myths, poems, and is, perhaps, best known for his sonnets.

Shakespeare’s plays are divided into three main categories:

However, the historical plays are sometimes merged into one category along with the tragedies.

The Comedies

A comedy is a dramatic play that has a light or humorous tone, meant to induce a state of laughter, through the use of amusing or improbable events, actions and behaviors.

Shakespeare’s comedies feature heavily ironic and witty dialogue, clever wordplay, confusing/convoluted plots and amusing characters. In total, Shakespeare has written 16 comedies.

Play Setting Theme
Much Ado About Nothing Messina (Italy) Romantic pairings, trickery
A Midsummer Night’s Dream Athens (Greece) Marriage of Theseus and Hippolyta.
The Tempest a remote island Magic, betrayal, manipulation
Twelfth Night, or What You Will Illyria Romantic comedy
The Comedy of Errors Ephesus (Greece) Puns, slapstick, word play
As You Like It Forest of Arden Persecution, romance
The Merchant of Venice Venice (Italy) Romantic comedy, religion
The Winter’s Tale kingdom of Sicily (Italy) Problem play: Psychological drama
All’s Well That Ends Well Paris (France) Problem play: Complex ethical dilemmas
The Taming of the Shrew English countryside Courtship
Measure for Measure Vienna (Italy) Disguise, irony, romance
Love’s Labour’s Lost Navarre (Spain) Masculine love, rationality, desire, reality vs. fantasy
The Merry Wives of Windsor Windsor (England) Poverty, seduction
The Two Gentlemen of Verona Verona, Milan (Italy) Friendship, infidelity
Written in-part by Shakespeare or uncertain attribution
Pericles, Prince of Tyre Ancient Greece and Turkey Fate, riddles
The Two Noble Kinsmen Ancient Greece Tragicomedy: blending of both comedy and tragedy

The Historical Plays

A historical play is a theatrical genre that focuses on presenting historical events. The genre emerged from tragedy during the Renaissance period in England, and is often considered a subset of tragedy.

Shakespeare’s histories are a collection of biographies of the English kings from King John up to king Henry VIII. The history plays are sometimes counted together with the tragedy plays due to their themes. Furthermore, many of Shakespeare’s tragedies dealt with historical themes. The plays are, in order:

Play Years of reign Subject
First Tetralogy 1 Henry VI 1422 – 1461 100 Years’ War
2 Henry VI The Wars of Roses
3 Henry VI
Richard III 1483 – 1485 End of the War of Roses
King John 1190 – 1216 War in France
Edward III 1327 – 1377 100 Years’ War
Second Tetralogy Richard II 1377 – 1399 Usurpation of throne
1 Henry IV 1399 – 1413 Rebellion
2 Henry IV
Henry V 1413 – 1422 Victory of Agincourt
Henry VIII 1509 – 1547 Tudor father of Queen Elizabeth I

The Tragedies

A tragedy is a theatrical genre that focuses on human suffering and the terrible or tragic events that affect the main character or a whole cast of characters. Tragedies entice the audience, invoking a strong emotional pain, and also acting as a didactic tool.

An overview of Shakespeare’s tragedies:

Play Setting Tragic ending
Titus Andronicus Ancient Rome (Roman Empire) Assassination of Titus by sword
Romeo and Juliet Verona (Italy) Romeo is poisoned; Juliet stabs herself.
Julius Caesar Ancient Rome (Roman Empire) Caesar is betrayed and stabbed by his allies.
Hamlet Denmark Hamlet is slain with a poisonous sword; Ophelia drowns herself.
Othello Venice (Italy) Othello strangles Desdemona in a fit of anger, then stabs himself with a blade.
King Lear Ancient Britain King Lear dies from an excess of emotion after Cordelia is hanged.
Macbeth Scotland Macbeth is slain in battle; Lady Macbeth commits suicide.
Anthony and Cleopatra Ancient Egypt, Rome Anthony commits suicide; Cleopatra is bitten by a snake.
Coriolanus Ancient Rome (Roman Empire) Coriolanus is stabbed by enemies.
Timon of Athens Ancient Athens (Greece) Timon decides to isolate himself from all mankind.

The Sonnets

The Sonnets are Shakespeare’s most popular and studied literary work. The style of the sonnets is considered a continuation of the sonnet tradition started in the Renaissance by Francis Petrarch in Italy (the name sonnet actually comes from the Italian sonetto, meaning “little song”), ultimately refined for the English language by Henry Howard.

In terms of poetic construction, Shakespeare’s sonnets all have 14 lines, being divided into 3 quatrains (a stanza of four lines) and a final couplet (two successive lines), use the iambic pentameter3, and follow a specific rhyming scheme (a-b-a-b // c-d-c-d // e-f-e-f // g-g).

In total, Shakespeare has written 154 sonnets, which feature a broad selection of themes and ideas, such as: mortality, love, beauty, time, jealousy, etc. The first part of the sonnets (Sonnets 1-126) are addressed to a young man, and the second part (Sonnets 127-152) to a woman, known as the dark lady.

Bibliography and sources

  1. Saint Thomas Becket (1119/1120 – 1170), also known as Saint Thomas of Canterbury, is an English archbishop and martyr.↩︎

  2. After the King James translation of the Bible, one of the most important and most popular translations in English.↩︎

  3. iambic pentameter is a type of metric line in which an unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed syllable.↩︎